Plasma cell mastitis: a comprehensive review of etiological advances and future directions
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By
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Hong Xu
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Buxilite Da
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Yuanqing Li
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Hao Zheng
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Lihua Xue
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Fengxia Zhao
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Yajing Wang
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Lihua Hou
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Xing Wang
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June 8, 2026
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Objective:
To synthesize current evidence on plasma cell mastitis (PCM), focusing on its etiology, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, and treatment strategies.
Key Findings:
- Anatomical factors such as inverted nipples and duct structural abnormalities contribute to PCM pathogenesis.
- Elevated pro-inflammatory factors (IL-6, TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-17) and activated Th1/Th17 cells suggest an immune-mediated component.
- Microbial infections are controversial, with most cultures being sterile; some are associated with anaerobic bacteria or mycobacteria.
- Smoking and obesity may influence PCM through hormonal disorders and chronic inflammation.
Interpretation:
Limitations:
- No unified international diagnostic standard for PCM exists.
- The review is narrative and does not include quantitative meta-analysis, which limits the strength of the conclusions drawn.
Conclusion:
Future research should focus on establishing reliable animal models and conducting multi-omics studies.
