To systematically evaluate the effects of outdoor and nature-based interventions on self-efficacy among adolescents and young adults using a three-level meta-analytic approach.
Approach:
Literature Search: A systematic search was conducted in PubMed, Web of Science, Embase, Cochrane Library, SPORTDiscus, and PsycArticles for studies published up to December 8, 2025.
Key Findings:
Six independent studies comprising 10 effect sizes with 1,356 participants aged 12–24 years were included.
The meta-analysis showed a significant positive effect of outdoor and nature-based interventions on self-efficacy (d = 0.80, 95% CI 0.31 to 1.30, p = 0.005).
No significant moderating effects were found for intervention duration or population type.
Interpretation:
Outdoor and nature-based interventions were associated with improvements in self-efficacy among adolescents and young adults.
Limitations:
The small number of available studies.
Indications of potential small-study effects.
Conclusion:
Outdoor and nature-based interventions may support self-efficacy during critical developmental periods.
