Objective:

To describe the relationship between COPD and subsequent major adverse cardiovascular events (MACE) among cardiovascular-kidney-metabolic (CKM) populations, specifically focusing on CKD, T2DM, obesity, MACE history, and individuals aged ≥ 65 years, and to understand the role of inhaled corticosteroids (ICS) in this context.

Key Findings:

• COPD patients have a significantly higher risk of MACE compared to the general population, highlighting the need for targeted interventions.
• COPD prevalence is higher in CKM populations than in the general population, indicating a critical area for healthcare focus.
• The role of ICS in reducing MACE risk in CKM populations with COPD remains unclear, necessitating further investigation.

Interpretation:

COPD may independently contribute to increased cardiovascular risk in CKM populations, but the impact of ICS treatment on MACE outcomes needs further investigation to inform clinical practice.

Limitations:

• The study relies on observational data, which may introduce bias; future studies should consider randomized controlled trials.
• Population heterogeneity may affect the generalizability of findings; stratified analyses could provide more insights.
• Potential confounding factors related to comorbidities were not fully controlled; future research should aim to address these.

Conclusion:

Understanding the interplay between COPD, ICS treatment, and cardiovascular outcomes in CKM populations is crucial for improving patient management and outcomes, and further research is essential to clarify these relationships.